Electricity,Electric charge,Electronics,Electrical energy,Integrated circuit,Electronic circuit,Electrical load,Electromotive force,Battery,Electrochemical cell,Electronic circuit,Power supply,Transformer,Rectifier,Power inverter - onclick786

Electricity,Electric charge,Electronics,Electrical energy,Integrated circuit,Electronic circuit,

Electrical load,Electromotive force,Battery,

Electrochemical cell,Electronic circuit,

Power supply,Transformer,

Rectifier,Power inverter

Electricity

Electricity works because electric charges push and pull on each other. There are two types of electric charges: positive charges and negative charges. Similar charges repel each other. This means that if you put two positive charges close together and let them go, they would move apart. Two negative charges also repel. But different charges attract each other. This means that if you put a positive charge and a negative charge close together, they would smack together. A short way to remember this is the phraseopposites attract, likes repel.

Electricity is the presence and flow of electric charge. Its best-known form is the flow of electrons through conductors such as copper wires.

Electricity is a form of energy that comes in positive and negative forms, that occur naturally (as in lightning), or is produced (as in a generator). It is a form of energy which we use to power machines and electrical devices. When the charges are not moving, electricity is called static electricity. When the charges are moving they are an electric current, sometimes called 'dynamic electricity'. Lightning is the most known - and dangerous - kind of electricity in nature, but sometimes static electricity causes things to stick together. Electricity can be dangerous, especially around water.

Static electricity occurs when there are fewer or more electrons for the atoms. If the electrons stay where they are, the atom that has too many or too few electrons will attract or sometimes repel other atoms. If the electrons move from where there are too many, to where there are too few, an electric current will flow.

Since the nineteenth century, electricity has been used in every part of our lives.

Electric charge

Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative. Like charges repel and unlike attract. An object is negatively charged if it has an excess of electrons, and is otherwise positively charged or uncharged. The SI derived unit of electric charge is the coulomb (C). In electrical engineering, it is also common to use the ampere-hour (Ah), and, inchemistry, it is common to use the elementary charge (e) as a unit. The symbol Q often denotes charge. Early knowledge of how charged substances interact is now called classical electrodynamics, and is still accurate for problems that don't require consideration of quantum effects.

The electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles, which determines theirelectromagnetic interaction. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields. The interaction between a moving charge and an electromagnetic field is the source of the electromagnetic force, which is one of the fourfundamental forces

Electronics

Electronics is the science of controlling electric energy, energy in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive electrical components and interconnection technologies. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements; such a circuit is described as anelectronic circuit.

Electrical energy

Electrical energy is the energy newly derived from electric potential energy or kinetic energy. When loosely used to describe energy absorbed or delivered by an electrical circuit(for example, one provided by an electric power utility) "electrical energy" talks about energy which has been converted from electric potential energy. This energy is supplied by the combination of electric current and electric potential that is delivered by the circuit. At the point that this electric potential energy has been converted to another type of energy, it ceases to be electric potential energy. Thus, all electrical energy is potential energy before it is delivered to the end-use. Once converted from potential energy, electrical energy can always be called another type of energy (heat, light, motion, etc.)



Integrated circuit

An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material, normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from independent electronic components. ICs can be made very compact, having up to several billion transistors and other electronic components in an area the size of a human fingernail. The half-pitch between nodes in a circuit has been made smaller as the technology advances; in 2008 it dropped below 100 nanometers, and was reduced to around 14 nanometers in 2014.

ICs were made possible by experimental discoveries showing that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubesand by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tinytransistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components. The integrated circuit's mass production capability, reliability and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized integrated circuits in place of designs using discrete transistors.

Electronic circuit

An electronic circuit is composed of individual electronic components, such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors and diodes, connected by conductive wires or traces through which electric current can flow. The combination of components and wires allows various simple and complex operations to be performed: signals can be amplified, computations can be performed, and data can be moved from one place to another.

Circuits can be constructed of discrete components connected by individual pieces of wire, but today it is much more common to create interconnections by photolithographic techniques on a laminated substrate (a printed circuit board or PCB) and solder the components to these interconnections to create a finished circuit. In an integrated circuit or IC, the components and interconnections are formed on the same substrate, typically a semiconductor such as silicon or (less commonly) gallium arsenide.

An electronic circuit can usually be categorized as an analog circuit, a digital circuit, or a mixed-signal circuit (a combination of analog circuits and digital circuits).

Breadboards, perfboards, and stripboards are common for testing new designs. They allow the designer to make quick changes to the circuit during development.

Electrical load

An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit that consumes electric power. This is opposed to a power source, such as a battery or generator, which produces power. In electric power circuits examples of loads are appliances and lights. The term may also refer to the power consumed by a circuit.

The term is used more broadly in electronics for a device connected to a signal source, whether or not it consumes power. If an electric circuit has an output port, a pair of terminals that produces an electrical signal, the circuit connected to this terminal (or its input impedance) is the load. For example, if a CD player is connected to an amplifier, the CD player is the source and the amplifier is the load.

Load affects the performance of circuits with respect to output voltages or currents, such as in sensors, voltage sources, and amplifiers. Mains power outlets provide an easy example: they supply power at constant voltage, with electrical appliances connected to the power circuit collectively making up the load. When a high-power appliance switches on, it dramatically reduces the load impedance.

If the load impedance is not very much higher than the power supply impedance, the voltages will drop. In a domestic environment, switching on a heating appliance may causeincandescent lights to dim noticeably.

Electromotive force

Electromotive force, also called emf (denoted ${\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}}$ and measured in volt), is the voltage developed by any source of electrical energy such as a battery or dynamo. It is generally defined as the electrical potential for a source in a circuit.A device that supplies electrical energy is called a seat of electromotive force or emf. Emfs convert chemical, mechanical, and other forms of energy into electrical energy.The product of such a device is also known as emf.

Battery

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices ranging from flashlights and smartphones to electric cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external device. When a battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytesare able to move as ions within, allowing the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows current to flow out of the battery to perform work.Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device composed of multiple cells, however the usage has evolved to additionally include devices composed of a single cell.

Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded; the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using mains power from a wall socket; the original composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles andlithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and smartphones. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid batteriesused in cars and trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers.

Electrochemical cell

An electrochemical cell is a device capable of either generating electrical energy from chemical reactions or facilitating chemical reactions through the introduction of electrical energy. A common example of an electrochemical cell is a standard 1.5-volt cell meant for consumer use. This type of device is known as a single Galvanic cell. A battery consists of two or more cells, connected in either parallel or series pattern.



Power supply

A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load. The primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to another and, as a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some power supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built into larger devices along with their loads. Examples of the latter include power supplies found in desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources, including electrical energy transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells, electromechanical systems such as generatorsand alternators, solar power converters, or another power supply.

All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and a power output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input and output consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connections, though some power supplies employ wireless energy transfer in lieu of galvanic connections for the power input or output. Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as external monitoring and control.

Transformer

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers electrical energy between two or more circuits through electromagnetic induction. Electromagnetic induction produces an electromotive force within a conductor which is exposed to time varying magnetic fields. Transformers are used to increase or decrease the alternating voltages in electric power applications.

A varying current in the transformer's primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer core and a varying field impinging on the transformer's secondary winding. This varying magnetic field at the secondary winding induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or voltage in the secondary winding due to electromagnetic induction. Making use of Faraday's Law (discovered in 1831) in conjunction with high magnetic permeability core properties, transformers can be designed to efficiently change AC voltages from one voltage level to another within power networks.

Since the invention of the first constant potential transformer in 1885, transformers have become essential for the transmission, distribution, and utilization of alternating current electrical energy.A wide range of transformer designs is encountered in electronic and electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a cubic centimeter in volume to units interconnecting the power gridweighing hundreds of tons.

Rectifier

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, includingvacuum tube diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers, called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As noted,detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is used to detect presence of a flame.

Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment, require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a battery). In these applications the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a steady current.

Power inverter

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC).

The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source.

A power inverter can be entirely electronic or may be a combination of mechanical effects (such as a rotary apparatus) and electronic circuitry. Static inverters do not use moving parts in the conversion process.











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Electricity
Electric charge
Electronics
Electrical energy
Integrated circuit
Electronic circuit
Electrical load
Electromotive force
Battery
Electrochemical cell
Electronic circuit
Power supply
Transformer
Rectifier
Power inverter
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
DC power supplies
power transformers 
rectification 
half wave 
full wave
bridge 
expression for ripple factor
efficiency
comparison
diode ratings
filters 
capacitor
inductor LC filters
use of bleeder resistor 
voltage multipliers 
dual power supplies 
zener and avalanche diodes 
simple and series voltage regulator
Special semiconductor devices
Principles and operation of photodiodes
PIN diodes
phototransistors
LED
UJT
MOSFET- Enhancement and depletion types 
NMOS, PMOS and CMOS -basic principles & characteristics
Small Signal amplifiers
Bipolar junction transistor – configurations, characteristics 
current amplification factors 
relations between alpha & beta – comparison
BJT amplifiers
Biasing techniques of BJT- stabilization of operating point
h-parameters 
CE RC coupled amplifier 
concept of load lines
frequency response of RC coupled amplifier 
lower cut-off frequency 
upper cut-off frequency  
3 db bandwidth
FET Amplifiers: Principle of operation, characteristics
Common source amplifier
frequency response-applications
Power amplifier
classification - class A, B, AB and C power amplifiers
tuned amplifier
pushpull and complementary symmetry power amplifier 
Feed-back amplifiers
concept of Negative and positive feedback
Bark Hausen criteria
low frequency sinusoidal oscillators
High frequency oscillators
types- LC, Crystal oscillators –circuit diagram-description-applications
Pulse Circuits:-Different types Pulse circuits 
pulse characteristics 
Pulse shaping using RC circuits 
Differentiating and integrating circuits –applications
Clipping and clamping circuits using diodes 
Transistor as a switch
simple sweep circuits
bootstrap sweep
Multivibrators
astable, monostable and bistable ciruits using BJTs-applications